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Mythes Sémites pour Gogos Goys

samedi 11 janvier 2014 (Date de rédaction antérieure : 11 janvier 2014).

« Le jour où moi, juif, je serai traité de con, je saurai que c’est la fin de l’antisémitisme » Pierre Dac

En 2014, le ministre français de l’Intérieur, devenu ministre de la propagande et du désordre, met sur pied une circulaire, mettant l’humour au service exclusif du sionisme. En agissant ainsi, Manual Valls, met en pratique une ineptie raciste explicitée par Yann Moix : «  L’Humour appartient exclusivement aux Juifs ». Membre du comité d’honneur de l’Institut des études lévinassiennes (fondé à Jérusalem par BHL et Alain Finkielkraut), Yann Moix déclare sur RCJ (Radio de la communauté juive), « l’humour est juif tandis que l’ironie est chrétienne. » Pourquoi ? D’après lui, l’ironie consiste à se moquer des autres, tandis que l’humour est basé sur l’autodérision. "Je suis juif car j’ai de l’humour, j’ai de l’humour car je suis juif". Vingt sept ans plus tôt, en 1986, l’humoriste goy (non juif) Pierre Desproges avait formulé une remarque adéquate -et inimaginable dans le contexte actuel- pour rétorquer à l’ineptie raciste de Yann Moix : "Je suis assommé, fatigué par la prétention qu’ont certains juifs de détenir la clé de l’humour. Ils nous gonflent. Alors, là, vraiment, je les emmerde.".

Deux poids deux mesures

Lorsque Éric Zemmour, chouchou de l’extrême droite, parle des "délinquants qui sont arabes et noirs", le seul à lui répondre a été Dieudonné « Le problème de Zemmour c’est qu’il n’y a personne en face pour lui dire (…) quand il dit que les noirs les arabes peuplent les prisons… Je dis oui pour les délits mineurs. Mais les gros escrocs de la planète sont tous des juifs. Les Madoff, tout ça…. Zemmour, tu ne crois pas que c’est à eux qu’il faut d’abord s’en prendre avant de s’en prendre à ceux qui volent les miettes ? ».

Et voilà que le 25 mai 2012, le journal Challenges, qu’on peut difficilement qualifier d’antisémite, sort un article intitulé : Menaces sur le CAC40 : les nouveaux escrocs pêchent au gros. Il y est question de la Jewish connection. « Dans les années 1970, les frères Zemmour, ces pieds-noirs venus d’Algérie … étaient devenus les caïds du trafic de drogue et du proxénétisme à Paris. Aujourd’hui, ces spécialistes excellent dans les arnaques financières, opérant entre Paris, Hong-kong et Tel-Aviv. Une note de la Direction centrale de la police judiciaire détaille que « trois pays apparaissent régulièrement dans ces escroqueries : Israël où des groupes criminels se sont spécialisés, la France comme pays où sont ciblées les entreprises, la Chine comme lieu de destination première des virements, avant réorientation vers Israël » ». Dieudonné avait dit vrai.

Les déclarations d’Éric Zemmour rappellent celle d’un député-maire « socialiste » d’Évry, un certain Manuel Valls, déclarant en juin 2011 : "Belle image de la ville d’Évry… Tu me mets quelques whites, quelques blancos.. ». Il y avait, à son goût, trop de noirs et de basanés. Le même Manuel Valls déclamait aussi, sur la radio Judaïca Strasbourg qui l’interviewait. « être éternellement lié à l’État d’Israël . Ce dont personne ne doute aujourd’hui. A-t-il jamais déclamé son attachement éternel à la France (ou à l’Espagne, pays de ses ancêtres) ? Ministre d’Etat, n’y-a-t-il là comme un conflit d’intérêt à être payé par un Etat pour servir un autre Etat ?

Lorsque des théâtres ont programmé en 2011 le scandaleux spectacle Golgota Picnic qui avait un contenu notoirement antichrétien, Civitas avait organisé une impressionnante mobilisation. Pas une représentation ne s’est tenue sans une manifestation devant le théâtre concerné. Et pour le spectacle Sur le concept du visage du fils de Dieu, des catholiques outragés ont fréquemment fait irruption sur la scène pour interrompre les profanations et les blasphèmes. Pourtant, ni à l’UMP, au pouvoir à l’époque, ni au PS, alors dans l’opposition au niveau national mais souvent au pouvoir au niveau local, il ne fut question d’interdire ces spectacles en raison du risque de trouble à l’ordre public. Curieusement, offenser les chrétiens ou les musulmans (comme le fait notamment Charlie Hebdo), ça ce serait de l’humour. Comment ne pas penser à cette photographie de Bernard Henri-Lévy s’esclaffant un Charlie Hebdo en mains, justement le numéro qui avait provoqué un tollé chez les musulmans.

Claude Sarraute, dame fort sympathique par ailleurs, s’adressant aux Arméniens de France, leur dit : « regardez, nous les juifs, ce qu’on a réussi à faire avec notre Shoah ! On l’a vendu partout, on est couverts d’argent, on est vraiment plus forts que vous ! » . Elle ajoute : « Ces cons-là (les Araméniens), ils ont vraiment eu la même chose, et tout ce qu’ils trouvent à faire, c’est s’asseoir par terre dans la rue ! ». Le traitement médiatique est toujours étrange en France, sur ces sujets. Elle annonce le Shoah Business, elle persiste et signe, mais bon, elle pas noire comme Dieudonné, ni arabe, ni goy, alors ça va…pas d’accusation d’antisémitisme. Ça passe comme une lettre à la poste.

Des Sionistes français déclarent : " Quand Dieudonné et ses amis s’attaquent aux juifs, au signifié Juif, à la légitimité de l’État d’Israël, c’est au statut de l’homme libre, acteur de sa vie, maître de son destin qu’ils s’attaquent." Parmi eux, Pascal Brukner (qui, en mars 2003, a été favorable à la guerre de George W. Bush contre l’Irak, et qui participera, trois ans plus tard, à la création de la revue néoconservatrice française Le Meilleur des mondes) déclare : ".. .Il ne peut y avoir de racisme anti-Blanc, nous expliquent des voix autorisées, sinon par réaction puisque le Blanc est seul coupable d’avoir inventé la hiérarchie des races et d’avoir répandu le malheur partout où il s’est installé. Or, ce racisme existe, il nous crève les yeux, et c’est l’antisémitisme, présent au Maghreb, au Moyen-Orient, en Afrique subsaharienne et dans nos banlieues, et réactivant la vieille haine antijuive de notre extrême droite. " Les néoconservateurs de P. Brukner ont également apporté un soutien inconditionnel au Likoud, le parti de l’extrême-droite israélienne. Paradoxe apparent de cette mouvance : une alliance entre ultra-sionistes venus de la gauche trotskiste, fondamentalistes chrétiens de type évangéliste, et fondamentalistes musulmans de type Saoudien ou Qatari, qui au nom de l’intérêt économique de leur propre portefeuille, ont uni leurs efforts pour piller le monde et asservir les peuples au nom d’un Nouvel Ordre Mondial.

Résumons

A- les sionistes sont les défenseurs de la liberté incarnée par les sionistes blancs, contre ces racistes que sont (1) les noirs d’Afrique subsaharienne, (2) les immigrés "arabes" des banlieues françaises, et (3) les basanés du Maghreb et du Moyen-Orient,

B- Les sionistes ont le droit de ne pas aimer les Noirs et les Arabes, mais personne n’a le droit de ne pas aimer les "Sionistes Blancs".

C- Les vrais Sémites sont ces Sionistes Blancs. Tous les autres sont des goys racistes, dont les pires sont les Arabes et les Noirs.

D- Quand un juif critique les juifs, c’est de l’humour. Lorsqu’un goy critique les sionistes, c’est de l’antisémitisme.

E- Les goys n’ont pas droit au terme "humour". L’humour est spécifiquement juif.

Mais qui sont donc les Sémites ?

En linguistique, les Sémites sont l’ensemble des peuples utilisant ou ayant utilisé les langues sémitiques. En ethnologie, ce sont les peuples (actuels ou anciens) parlant une langue du groupe sémite, au Moyen-Orient, dans la Corne de l’Afrique (Érythrée et Éthiopie), dans la péninsule Arabique, dans le Croissant fertile et en Afrique du Nord. Les langues sémitiques contemporaines les plus parlées sont l’arabe (450 millions de locuteurs, soit 91%), l’amharique (27 millions, soit 5%), l’hébreu (8 millions, soit 2%), le tigrinya (6,75 millions, soit 1%). Les Sémites sont donc, à plus de 90% Arabes, à plus de 6% Noirs, et à moins de 2% Juifs. Logiquement, un antisémite est donc quelqu’un qui n’aime ni les Arabes ni les Noirs, comme Manuel Valls ou Eric Zemmour. Ils sont donc antisémites. Il tombent sous le coup de la loi. On devrait leur interdire de se produire en public net sur les chaînes de TV….

Les "Juifs-blancs" sont-ils des Sémites ?

Nous n’allons pas nous étendre sur le cas des juifs séfarades qui représentent moins de 10% des juifs.

Nous allons nous intéresser tout particulièrement aux juifs ashkénazes, instigateurs et fers de lance du sionisme. Or, ces juifs ashkénazes, qui représentent plus de 90% des 13 millions de juifs actuels dans le monde, prétendent descendre des Hébreux de Palestine. Nous allons montrer que c’est faux : historiquement, démographiquement, linguistiquement et génétiquement.

I- Aspects historiques et démographiques

Selon l’hypothèse dite « rhénane », les Ashkénazes descendent des juifs sémites qui ont fui la Palestine après la conquête musulmane en 638 après J.C. Toujours selon cette hypothèse, ils se sont installés dans le sud de l’Europe, puis, à la fin du Moyen Âge, environ 50.000 d’entre eux se sont déplacés de la Rhénanie, en Allemagne, vers l’Europe de l’Est. Cependant, cette hypothèse est invraisemblable, car un tel scénario est impossible en termes démographiques. Cela supposerait un bond de la population des juifs d’Europe orientale de 50.000 individus au 15e siècle à environ huit millions au début du 20e siècle. Le taux de natalité aurait été ainsi 10 fois supérieur à celui de la population locale non-juive. Et cela malgré les difficultés économiques, les maladies, les guerres et les pogroms qui ont ravagé les communautés juives.

Selon l’hypothèse dite khazare, les juifs d’Europe descendent des Khazars, un mélange de clans turcs qui se sont installés dans le Caucase dans les premiers siècles avant J.C. et qui, influencés par les missionnaires juifs de Palestine, se sont convertis au judaïsme au 8e siècle. Les juifs khazars ont construit un empire florissant, attirant des juifs de Mésopotamie et de l’Empire byzantin voisins. Ils ont tellement prospéré qu’ils ont essaimé en Hongrie et en Roumanie, plantant les graines d’une vaste diaspora sur toute l’Europe centrale et orientale. Cette hypothèse sur l’origine khazare de la majorité de la diaspora juive a connu un regain d’intérêt avec la publication du livre Comment le peuple juif fut inventé de l’historien israélien Shlomo Sand qui défend la thèse selon laquelle la diaspora juive serait le fruit de conversions successives. Un autre historien, le français Marc Ferro, reprend l’idée d’une origine khazare et la présente comme l’un des « tabous de l’histoire ». Il explique que bien « des juifs croient ferme, comme les Juifs d’Europe centrale, qu’ils sont tous originaires de Palestine : ceux-ci ont oublié qu’une grande partie d’entre eux sont des convertis de l’époque du royaume khazar ». L’écrivain Marek Halter a popularisé cette thèse dans un roman, Le vent des Khazars.

Le mythe racial-ethnique de l’origine hébraïque de tous les juifs du monde ne tient donc pas. Par contre, les habitants actuels de Palestine (dits Arabes ou Palestiniens, chrétiens et musulmans), sont très probablement les descendants directs du “peuple hébreu” de l’antiquité, de ceux qui restèrent sur place, c’est-à-dire la grande majorité de la population d’alors, et dont une partie se convertit au christianisme et plus tard, une autre partie, à l’Islam. A ce propos, Sand rappelle que les différents exils de l’antiquité ne touchèrent jamais que des minorités, généralement des fractions de l’élite.

La « revendication » volontaire et exclusive par des Européens de confession juive de « l’antisémitisme » est donc abusive : d’où l’illégitimité de beaucoup de leurs actions et revendications, en particulier la revendication de la terre d’Israël. Il aurait été plus juste de leur octroyer "un foyer juif" dans leur pays d’origine, dans le sud de la Russie. Les Khasars les plus puissants et les plus célèbres sont les Rothschild, des Talmudistes zélés. Leur nom vient de l’enseigne/bouclier (schild en allemand) rouge (rot /roht), le blason des khazars. Dans les années 1840, Salomon Mayer - Rothschild eu un enfant adultérin avec sa servante. Cet enfant, une fille, eut plus tard un fils, qui, financé par les Rothschild, devint le Chancelier d’Allemagne : un certain Adolphe Jacob Hitler…C’est l’un des premiers Rothschild, Amschel Mayer Rothschild (1743-1812), qui a déclaré : " Donnez moi le contrôle de la monnaie d’une nation, et je me moque de qui fait les lois !"

II- Aspect linguistique

Depuis la victoire des Russes et la disparition du royaume khazar, la langue khazare est connue sous le nom de « yiddish ». En se convertissant au judaïsme, le roi khazar de l’époque avait opté pour l’alphabet hébreu, comme système d’écriture, car la langue khazar n’avait alors aucun alphabet. Depuis cette époque, les Juifs d’Europe orientale se désignent dans tous les pays où ils vivent comme étant des « Yiddish », plutôt que comme des Russes, des Polonais, des Roumains, des Hongrois etc. Avant qu’elle ne commence à être connue sous le nom de « langue yiddish », la langue maternelle des Khazars, dont le vocabulaire était assez limité, s’est accrue de nombreux mots nouveaux, provenant des langues des pays voisins : mots issus de l’allemand, du slavon (vieux russe), du lituanien, du letton, etc. C’est à l’allemand que les Khazars prirent le plus grand nombre de mots. Il n’y a que peu de mots hébreux en yiddish. Ces deux langues sont aussi étrangères l’une à l’autre que le sont par exemple le suédois et le turc, qui utilisent pourtant le même alphabet latin. Sur le plan culturel, la langue yiddish est le dénominateur commun de tous les Juifs d’Europe orientale ou en provenance d’Europe orientale.

III- Aspect génétique

1- Selon une première étude, publiée en janvier 2013 dans la revue britannique Genome Biology and Evolution, les Juifs d’Europe trouvent leur origine dans un mélange d’ascendances, dont de nombreuses proviennent de tribus du Caucase qui se sont converties au judaïsme. Cette étude a comparé les génomes (qui forment le patrimoine génétique) de 1287 individus non apparentés descendants de huit groupes de population juifs et de 74 non juifs. Le généticien Eran Elhaik (École de Santé publique Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, États-Unis) a passé au crible ces données, à la recherche de mutations dans le code ADN liées à l’origine géographique d’un groupe. Parmi les juifs d’Europe, le généticien a trouvé des signatures ancestrales qui pointaient clairement vers le Caucase et aussi, mais dans une moindre mesure, vers le Moyen-Orient. Ces résultats, a déclaré Eran Elhaik, viennent appuyer l’« hypothèse Khazare ». « Nous concluons que le génome des juifs d’Europe est une mosaïque de populations anciennes, incluant des Khazars judaïsés, des juifs gréco-romains, des juifs de Mésopotamie et de Palestine », a expliqué Eran Elhaik. « La structure de leur population a été formée dans le Caucase et sur les rives de la Volga, avec des racines qui s’étendent à la région de Canaan et aux rives du Jourdain », a-t-il poursuivi. Selon Eran Elhaik, l’histoire esquissée dans les gènes est étayée par les découvertes archéologiques, par la littérature juive qui décrit la conversion des Khazars au judaïsme, ainsi que par la langue.

2- Selon une étude plus récente, publiée le 8 octobre 2013 dans le journal Nature communications, la majorité des Juifs ashkénazes descendrait d’ancêtres européens.

De nouvelles preuves scientifiques(*) tirent profit de l’étude de l’ADN mitochondrial afin de reconstituer la filiation génétique des Juifs ashkénazes. L’ADN mitochondrial est exclusivement transmis par la mère. Ainsi, l’ADN mitochondrial reflète la lignée maternelle alors que l’ADN transmis par le chromosome Y est un reflet de la lignée paternelle. Les ADN mitochondriaux du Moyen-Orient et du Caucase ne représentant qu’une petite proportion du patrimoine génétique des Juifs ashkénazes. Étant donné que la communauté juive repose sur un système matriarcal, ces nouveaux résultats suggèrent que c’est la conversion au judaïsme de femmes européennes qui aurait permis l’établissement d’une communauté juive dans la plupart des pays européens.

Dieudonné M’Bala M’Bala, le "bouc émissaire"

Comme le dit la journaliste anglaise Diana Johnstone "L’industrie française est en train de disparaître, avec des usines qui ferment les unes après les autres. L’imposition des citoyens à faibles revenus est à la hausse, pour sauver les banques et l’euro. La désillusion vis-à-vis de l’Union européenne est de plus en plus forte. Les règles de l’UE empêchent toute action sérieuse pour améliorer l’état de l’économie française. Pendant ce temps, les politiciens de gauche et de droite continuent leurs discours creux, émaillés de clichés sur les « droits de l’homme » —en grande partie comme prétexte pour aller à la guerre au Moyen-Orient ou pour des diatribes contre la Chine et la Russie—. Le pourcentage d’opinions positives sur le président Hollande a dégringolé à 15 %. Pourtant les gens votent, avec pour résultat les mêmes politiques, décidées par l’UE. Pourquoi alors la classe dirigeante concentre-t-elle sa vindicte sur « l’humoriste le plus talentueux de sa génération" (ainsi que le reconnaissent ses confrères, même quand ils le dénoncent) ? La réponse en bref est probablement que la popularité montante de Dieudonné auprès de la jeunesse illustre un accroissement de l’écart entre générations. Dieudonné fait rire aux dépens de l’ensemble de l’establishment politique. Ce qui a eu pour conséquences un torrent d’injures et de démarches pour interdire ses spectacles, le ruiner financièrement et même le faire aller en prison. "

Que faut-il en conclure ?

Les recherches ci-dessus montrent que les Juifs ashkénazes ne peuvent légitimement se réclamer d’ancêtres hébreux de Palestine datant de l’ère biblique. Les recherches révèlent qu’ils ne furent jamais des « Sémites. Ces recherches rejettent de manière irréfutable la croyance généralement admise selon laquelle les Juifs d’Europe orientale sont « le peuple élu » et qu’Israël est leur "terre promise". Elles démontrent que cette thèse est l’une des plus fantastiques falsifications de l’histoire. Ces Juifs d’Europe orientale sont en réalité des Khazars, d’origine turco-mongole. La collaboration turco-israélienne, depuis la création d’Israël à nos jours, ne relève donc aucunement du hasard. Sarkozy, lui-même d’origine khazare, en s’opposant à l’entrée de la Turquie dans l’Union européenne a privilégié son islamophobie à sa turquité khazare.

Le mot « antisémite », si galvaudé en France, ne sert qu’un seul objectif : c’est le mot clef des procès en diffamation contre tout opposant aux sinistres desseins des sionistes. Lorsque ces faux sémites sentent qu’un quidam va s’opposer à l’un de leurs objectifs, ils le prennent immédiatement pour cible et le discréditent en lui collant systématiquement l’étiquette d’« antisémite ».

Il serait intéressant qu’on nous explique pourquoi, comment, et par qui, l’origine et l’histoire des Khazars, ont été si bien cachées pendant des siècles. Quelle mystérieuse force a été capable, pendant une multitude de générations, de rayer les origines et l’histoire des Khazars de tous les livres d’histoire, et ce, dans tous les pays du monde, alors que l’histoire des Khazars et de leur royaume repose sur des faits historiquement incontestables ?

(*) http://www.bulletins-electroniques….. Costa et al. "A substantial prehistoric European ancestry amongst Ashkenazi maternal lineages", Nature Communications, doi:10.1038/ncomms3543, 2013 - http://redirectix.bulletins-electro…. - Kate Yandell, "Genetic Roots of the Ashkenazi Jews", The Scientist, 8 octobre 2013 - http://redirectix.bulletins-electro…. - Nicholas Wade, "Genes Suggest European Women at Root of Ashkenazi Family Tree", The New York Times, 8 octobre 2013 - http://redirectix.bulletins-electro… - Dr Nicolas Panayotis, Volontaire international chercheur à l’Institut Weizmann

Le premier qui dit se trouve toujours sacrifié ;
D’abord on le tue ;
Puis on s´habitue ;
On lui coupe la langue on le dit fou à lier ;
Après sans problèmes ;
Parle le deuxième ;
Le premier qui dit la vérité ;
Il doit être exécuté.
Guy Béart

Hannibal GENSERIC

http://numidia-liberum.blogspot.com…

6 Messages de forum

  • Mythes Sémites pour Gogos Goys 11 janvier 2014 08:56, par hassinus

    Oui, Monsieur vous avez entièrement raison… A cela il faut absolument ajouter que la première Shoah est la Shoah communiste. La guerre hitlérienne était dirigée contre l’URSS et les communistes du monde entier. Lorsqu’elles étaient soupçonnées de communisme les personnes arrêtées étaient fusillées sur le champ. Hitler l’affirmait sans arrêt, sa mission était d’éradiquer le communisme. Et si les pays capitalistes l’avaient laissé faire c’est pour cela. Ne cédaient-il pas les Sudètes à l’Allemagne nazie ce qui équivalait à un feu vert donné à Hitler de faire sa sale guerre. Et la preuve que c’était un acte anticommuniste, c’est que Staline n’avait pas été invité à cette conférence. Le plus grand nombre de victimes de cette guerre est communiste et les Juifs tués sont d’abord nos camarades communistes.
    Ce n’est pas pour son humour que Dieudonné voit le ciel lui tomber sur la tête, c’est parce qu’il démystifie par sa parole, humoristique ou non, l’argument majeur que les Sionistes utilisent pour justifier leur racisme, et leurs crimes génocidaires.
    La loi Gayssot que, malheureusement des communistes défendent, comme le monopole médiatement n’a pas un autre but que d’empêcher les gens d’accéder à une autre information et de se faire leur propre opinion. Et voilà que Dieudonné trouve une brèche. Bravo l’artiste tel que chanté par Ferrat.

  • Mythes Sémites pour Gogos Goys 11 janvier 2014 09:34

    A substantial prehistoric European ancestry amongst Ashkenazi maternal lineages :

    http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2013/1…

    Étude faite par :

    Marta D. Costa,
    Joana B. Pereira,
    Maria Pala,
    Verónica Fernandes,
    Anna Olivieri,
    Alessandro Achilli,
    Ugo A. Perego,
    Sergei Rychkov,
    Oksana Naumova,
    Jiři Hatina,
    Scott R. Woodward,
    Ken Khong Eng,
    Vincent Macaulay,
    Martin Carr,
    Pedro Soares,
    Luísa Pereira
    & Martin B. Richards

    Nature Communications
    4,
    Article number :
    2543
    doi:10.1038/ncomms3543

    Received
    11 July 2013
    Accepted
    04 September 2013
    Published
    08 October 2013

    Abstract

    The origins of Ashkenazi Jews remain highly controversial. Like Judaism, mitochondrial DNA is passed along the maternal line. Its variation in the Ashkenazim is highly distinctive, with four major and numerous minor founders. However, due to their rarity in the general population, these founders have been difficult to trace to a source. Here we show that all four major founders, 40% of Ashkenazi mtDNA variation, have ancestry in prehistoric Europe, rather than the Near East or Caucasus. Furthermore, most of the remaining minor founders share a similar deep European ancestry. Thus the great majority of Ashkenazi maternal lineages were not brought from the Levant, as commonly supposed, nor recruited in the Caucasus, as sometimes suggested, but assimilated within Europe. These results point to a significant role for the conversion of women in the formation of Ashkenazi communities, and provide the foundation for a detailed reconstruction of Ashkenazi genealogical history.

    At a glance

    Figures

    Figure 1

    Inferred ancestry of the main subclades within haplogroup U8.

    Full size figure : http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/jpg/ncomm…

    Legend : The timescale (ka) is based on ML estimations for mitogenomes. Inset : Bayesian skyline plot of 34 Ashkenazi haplogroup K lineages, showing growth in effective population size (Nef) over time.

    Figure 2

    Phylogenetic tree of haplogroup K1a1b1.

    Full size figure : http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/jpg/ncomm…

    Legend : Time scale (ka) based on ML estimations for mitogenome sequences.

    Figure 3

    Phylogenetic tree of haplogroup K1a9 in the context of the putative clade K1a9′10′15′26′30.

    Full size figure : http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/jpg/ncomm…

    Legend : Time scale (ka) based on ML estimations for mitogenome sequences.

    Figure 4

    Phylogenetic tree of haplogroup K2a2.

    Full size figure : http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/jpg/ncomm…

    Legend : Time scale (ka) based on ML estimations for mitogenome sequences.

    Figure 5

    Phylogenetic tree of haplogroup HV1b.

    Full size figure : http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/jpg/ncomm…

    Legend : Time scale (ka) based on ML estimations for mitogenome sequences.

    Figure 6

    Phylogenetic tree of haplogroup N1b.

    Full size figure : http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/jpg/ncomm…

    Legend : Time scale (ka) based on ML estimations for mitogenome sequences.

    Figure 7

    Schematic phylogenetic tree of haplogroup H1.

    Full size figure : http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/jpg/ncomm…

    Legend :

    Only the Ashkenazi lineages are shown in full detail ; the distribution of other lineages is indicated using small squares by the number present in the full tree for each subclade. Prehistoric European (all Neolithic, except for the H1aw lineage, which dates to the Iron Age) lineages are shown using red circles

    Brotherton, P. et al. Neolithic mitochondrial haplogroup H genomes and the genetic origins of Europeans. Nat. Commun. 4, 1764 (2013).

    Figure 8

    Phylogenetic tree of Ashkenazi founders within haplogroup H6a1a.

    Full size figure : http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/jpg/ncomm…

    Legend : Time scale (ka) based on ML estimations for mitogenome sequences. A Late Neolithic Corded Ware lineage from central Europe29 is shown in red emerging directly from the root.

    Figure 9

    Schematic phylogenetic tree of haplogroup J1c.

    Full size figure : http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/jpg/ncomm…

    Legend : Only the Ashkenazi lineages are shown in full detail ; the distribution of other lineages is indicated using small squares for each subclade with the number present in the full tree given in each case. For the full tree see Pala et al.30 Time scale (ka) based on ML estimations for mitogenome sequences.

    Figure 10

    Estimated contributions of European mtDNA lineages to the Ashkenazi mtDNA pool shown by major haplogroup.

    Full size figure : http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/jpg/ncomm…

    Legend : The possible overall Near Eastern contribution and fraction of unassigned lineages are also indicated.

    Introduction

    The origins of Ashkenazi Jews—the great majority of living Jews—remain highly contested and enigmatic to this day1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. The Ashkenazim are Jews with a recent ancestry in central and Eastern Europe, in contrast to Sephardim (with an ancestry in Iberia, followed by exile after 1492), Mizrahim (who have always resided in the Near East) and North African Jews (comprising both Sephardim and Mizrahim). There is consensus that all Jewish Diaspora groups, including the Ashkenazim, trace their ancestry, at least in part, to the Levant, 2,000–3,000 years ago5, 12, 13, 14. There were Diaspora communities throughout Mediterranean Europe and the Near East for several centuries prior to the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE (Common Era), and some scholars suggest that their scale implies proselytism and wide-scale conversion, although this view is very controversial9, 15.

    The Ashkenazim are thought to have emerged from dispersals north into the Rhineland of Mediterranean Jews in the early Middle Ages, although there is little evidence before the twelfth century5, 15. After expulsions from Western Europe between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries, the communities are thought to have expanded eastwards, especially in Poland, Lithuania and then Russia. The implied scale of this expansion has led some to argue, again very controversially, for mass conversions in the Khazar kingdom, in the North Caucasus region to the north and east of the Black Sea, following the Khazar leadership’s adoption of Judaism between the ninth and tenth centuries CE8, 9.

    We are then faced with several competing models for Ashkenazi origins : a Levantine ancestry ; a Mediterranean/west European ancestry ; a North Caucasian ancestry ; or, of course, a blend of these. This seems an ideal problem to tackle with genetic analysis, but after decades of intensive study a definitive answer remains elusive. Although we might imagine that such an apparently straightforward admixture question might be readily addressed using genome-wide autosomal markers, recent studies have proposed contradictory conclusions. Several suggest a primarily Levantine ancestry with south/west European admixture3, 4, but another concludes that the ancestry is largely Caucasian16, implying a major source from converts in the Khazar kingdom17. An important reason for disagreement is that the Ashkenazim have undergone severe founder effects during their history, drastically altering the frequencies of genetic markers and distorting the relationship with their ancestral populations.

    This problem can be resolved by reconstructing the relationships genealogically, rather than relying on allele frequencies, using the non-recombining marker systems : the paternally inherited male-specific part of the Y chromosome (MSY) and the maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). This kind of analysis can be very powerful, because nesting of particular lineages within clusters from a particular geographical region allows us to pinpoint the source for those lineages, by applying the parsimony principle. This has indeed been attempted, with the MSY results interpreted plausibly to suggest an overwhelming majority of Near Eastern ancestry on the Ashkenazi male line of descent11, 18, 19, 20, 21, albeit with much higher levels (>50%) of European (potentially east European) lineages in Ashkenazi Levites22, suggesting a possible Khazar source in that particular case.

    The maternal line has also been studied, and indeed Ashkenazi mtDNAs are highly distinctive, but they have proved difficult to assign to a source population1, 2, 11. Some progress has been made by targeting whole-mtDNA genomes or mitogenomes, which provide much higher genealogical (and therefore geographical) and chronological resolution than the control-region sequences used previously—although the far larger control-region database remains an invaluable guide to their geographic distribution. Using this approach, Behar et al.2 identified four major founder clusters, three within haplogroup K—amounting to 32% of sampled Ashkenazi lineages—and one within haplogroup N1b, amounting to another 9%. These lineages are extremely infrequent across the Near East and Europe, making the identification of potential source populations very challenging. Nevertheless, they concluded that all four most likely arose in the Near East and were markers of a migration to Europe of people ancestral to the Ashkenazim only 2,000 years ago1, 2. The remaining 60% of mtDNA lineages in the Ashkenazim remained unassigned to any source, with the exception of the minor haplogroup U5 and V lineages ( 6% in total), which implied European ancestry1, 23.

    Here we focus on both major and minor founders, with a much larger database from potential source populations. We first analyse 956 (72 newly generated) mitogenomes from haplogroup U8 (including 909 from haplogroup K, U8’s major subclade) : 477 of these are from Europe and 106 from the Near East/Caucasus. We show that European and Near Eastern lineages largely fall into discrete, ancient clusters, with minor episodes of gene flow, suggesting that haplogroup K diversified separately in Europe and the Near East during the last glacial period. Of the three Ashkenazi founders, K1a1b1a and K1a9 were most likely assimilated in west (perhaps Mediterranean) Europe and K2a2a1 in west/central Europe. Most surprisingly, by analysing two new N1b2 sequences selected from a database of 278 N1b HVS-I sequences, in the context of 44 published N1b sequences24, we show that the highly distinctive N1b2 subclade, making up another 9% of Ashkenazi lineages, was likely assimilated in Mediterranean Europe, rather than in the Near East as previously proposed2. Moreover, from a survey of another >2,500 complete mtDNA genomes and >28,000 control-region sequences from Europe, the Near East and the Caucasus, in comparison with the available database of 836 Ashkenazi control-region sequences and a handful of published mitogenomes, we also evaluate the minor founders. Overall, we estimate that most (>80%) Ashkenazi mtDNAs were assimilated within Europe. Few derive from a Near Eastern source, and despite the recent revival of the ‘Khazar hypothesis’16, virtually none are likely to have ancestry in the North Caucasus. Therefore, whereas on the male side there may have been a significant Near Eastern (and possibly east European/Caucasian) component in Ashkenazi ancestry, the maternal lineages mainly trace back to prehistoric Western Europe. These results emphasize the importance of recruitment of local women and conversion in the formation of Ashkenazi communities, and represent a significant step in the detailed reconstruction of Ashkenazi genealogical history.

    Results

    Four major founder lineages within haplogroup K and N1b

    Haplogroup K arose within haplogroup U8 36 ka, in Europe or the Near East, with the minor subclades K1b, K1c and K2 all most likely arising in Europe, between the last glacial period and the Neolithic (Fig. 1 ; Supplementary Note 1 ; Supplementary Data 1–3 ; Supplementary Figs S1–S3 ; Supplementary Tables S1–S3). K1a expanded from 20 ka onwards, both in the Near East and Europe, with its major subclade, K1a1b1 (Fig. 2), mainly restricted to Europe (with a few instances in North Africa), arriving from the Near East by 11.5 ka, the beginning of the Holocene (Supplementary Note 1).

    Figure 1 and Figure 2 :

    Almost half of mtDNAs in west/central European Ashkenazi Jews belong to haplogroup K, declining to 15% in east European Jews1, 11, with almost all falling into three subclades : K1a1b1a, K1a9 and K2a2a12, 25 (Figs 1, 2, 3, 4 ; Supplementary Fig. S4). These three founder clusters show a strong expansion signal beginning 2.3 ka, with the overall effective population size for these lineages increasing 13-fold by 275 years ago (Fig.1).

    Figure 3 and Figure 4 :

    K1a1b1a (slightly re-defined, due to the improved resolution of the new tree) (Fig. 2) accounts for 63% of Ashkenazi K lineages (or 20% of total Ashkenazi lineages) and dates to 4.4 ka with maximum likelihood (ML) ; however, all of the samples within it, except for one, nest within a further subclade, K1a1b1a1, dating to 2.3 ka (Supplementary Data 2). K1a1b1a1 is also present in non-Ashkenazi samples, mostly from central/east Europe. As they are nested by Ashkenazi lineages, these are likely due to gene flow from Ashkenazi communities into the wider population. The pattern of gene flow out into the neighbouring communities is seen in the other two major K founders, and also in haplogroups H and J ; it is especially clear when the nesting and nested populations are more distinct, for example in the case of haplogroup HV1b, which has a deep ancestry in the Near East (Fig. 5 ; Supplementary Table S4).

    Figure 5 :

    The K1a1b1 lineages within which the K1a1b1a sequences nest (including 19 lineages of known ancestry) are solely European, pointing to an ancient European ancestry. The closest nesting lineages are from Italy, Germany and the British Isles, with other subclades of K1a1b1 including lineages from west and Mediterranean Europe and one Hutterite (Hutterites trace their ancestry to sixteenth-century Tyrol)26. Typing/HVS-I results have also indicated several from Northwest Africa, matching European HVS-I types2, likely the result of gene flow from Mediterranean Europe. K1a1b1a is also present at low frequencies in Spanish-exile Sephardic Jews, but absent from non-European Jews, including a database of 289 North African Jews2, 25. Notably, it is not seen in Libyan Jews25, who are known to have a distinct Near Eastern ancestry, with no known influx from Spanish-exile immigrants (although Djerban Jews, with a similar history, have not been tested to date for mtDNA, they closely resemble Libyan Jews in autosomal analyses27). Thus the Ashkenazi subclade of K1a1b1 most likely had a west European source.

    K1a9 (Fig. 3 ; Supplementary Fig. S4), accounting for another 20% of Ashkenazi K lineages (or 6% of total Ashkenazi lineages) and also dating to 2.3 ka with ML (Supplementary Data 2) again includes both Ashkenazi and non-Ashkenazi lineages solely from east Europeans (again suggesting gene flow out into the wider communities). Like K1a1b1a, it is also found, at much lower frequencies, in Sephardim. Here the ancestral branching relationships are less clear (Supplementary Note 1 and Supplementary Fig. S4), but K1a9 is most plausibly nested within the putative clade K1a9′10′15′26′30, dating to 9.8 ka, which otherwise includes solely west European (and one Tunisian) lineages, again pointing to a west European source.

    K2a2 (Fig. 4) accounts for another 16% of Ashkenazi K lineages (or 5% of total Ashkenazi lineages) and dates to 8.4 ka (Supplementary Data 2). Ashkenazi lineages are once more found in a shallow subclade, K2a2a1, dating to 1.5 ka, that otherwise again includes only east Europeans, suggesting gene flow from the Ashkenazim. Conversely, the nesting clades, K2a2 and K2a2a, although poorly sampled, include only French and German lineages. K2a2a is not found in non-European Jews25.

    Haplogroup K is rarer in the North Caucasus than in Europe or the Near East (<4% (ref. 23)) and the three Ashkenazi founder clades have not been found there (Supplementary Note 2). We tested all eight K lineages out of 208 samples from the North Caucasus, and all belonged to the Near Eastern subclades K1a3, K1a4 and K1a12. Haplogroup K is more common in Chuvashia, but those sampled belong to K1a4, K1a5 and pre-K2a8.

    The fourth major Ashkenazi founder mtDNA falls within haplogroup N1b (ref. 2). The distribution of N1b is much more focused on the Near East than that of haplogroup K (ref. 24), and the distinctive Ashkenazi N1b2 subclade has accordingly being assigned to a Levantine source2. N1b2 has until now been found exclusively in Ashkenazim, and although it dates to only 2.3 ka, it diverged from other N1b lineages 20 ka (ref. 24) (Supplementary Table S5). N1b2 can be recognized in the HVS-I database by the variant 16176A, but Behar et al.2 tested 14 Near Eastern samples (and some east Europeans) with this motif and identified it as a parallel mutation. Therefore, despite the long branch leading to N1b2, no Near Eastern samples are known to belong to it.

    In our unpublished database of 6991 HVS-I sequences, however, we identified two Italian samples with the 16176A marker, which we completely sequenced. We confirmed that they belong to N1b2 but diverge before the Ashkenazi lineages 5 ka, nesting the Ashkenazi cluster (Fig. 6 ; Supplementary Table S5). This striking result suggests that the Italian lineages may be relicts of a dispersal from the Near East into Europe before 5 ka, and that N1b2 was assimilated into the ancestral Ashkenazi population on the north Mediterranean 2 ka. Although we found only two samples suggesting an Italian ancestry for N1b2, the control-region database available for inspection is very large (28,418 HVS-I sequences from Europe, the Near East and the Caucasus, of which 278, or 1%, were N1b). Moreover, the conclusion is supported by our previous founder analysis of N1b HVS-I sequences, which dated the dispersal into Europe to the late Pleistocene/early Holocene24.

    Figure 6 :

    Minor Ashkenazi mtDNA lineages

    There is now a large number of mitogenomes from Europe, the Caucasus and the Near East ( 3,500, with >70 Ashkenazim), and a substantial Ashkenazi mtDNA control-region database of 836 samples1, 2, 11 (Supplementary Table S6). We therefore endeavoured to cross-reference the two in order to pinpoint most of the control-region data within the mitogenome phylogeny.

    Besides the four haplogroup K and N1b founders, the major haplogroup in Ashkenazi Jews is haplogroup H, at 23% of Ashkenazi lineages, which is also the major haplogroup in Europeans (40–50% in Europe, 25% in the North Caucasus and 19% in the Near East)28. There are 29 Ashkenazi H mitogenomes available (Supplementary Table S7), 26 (90%) of which nest comfortably within European subclades dating to the early Holocene (Supplementary Note 3, Figs 7 and 8 ; Supplementary Figs S5–S10 ; Supplementary Table S8). Most, in fact, nest more specifically within west/central European subclades, with closely matching sequences in east Europe, as with the pattern for the K founder clades. The Ashkenazi mitogenomes from haplogroup H include 39% belonging to H1 or H3, which are most frequent in west Europe and rare outside Europe. The nesting relationships in some cases point (albeit tentatively) to a central European source, but in many cases comparison with the HVS-I database indicates matches in west Europe. The phylogeographic conclusions based on the nesting relationships are strongly supported for haplogroup H by evidence from the study of prehistoric remains, showing in almost all cases that the lineages concerned were present in Europe since at least the early Bronze Age, 3.5 ka (Supplementary Table S7)29. There is no suggestion of assimilation from the North Caucasus, where most H lineages differ from those of Europe23 (Supplementary Note 2).

    Figure 7 et Figure 8 :

    Haplogroup J comprises 7% of the Ashkenazi control-region database. Around 72% of these can be assigned to J1c, now thought to have arisen within Late Glacial Europe30, and 19% belong to J1b1a1, also restricted to Europe. Thus >90% of the Ashkenazi J lineages have a European origin, with 7% (J1b and J2b) less clearly associated. Many have a probable west/central European source, despite (like H) being most frequent in eastern Ashkenazim. The four Ashkenazi J mitogenomes, in J1c5, J1c7a1a and J1c7d, once again show a striking pattern of Mediterranean, west and central European lineages enclosing Ashkenazi/east European ones (Fig. 9).

    Figure 9 :

    Haplogroups U5, U4 and HV0 (6.3% between them overall) arose within Europe. Some of these lineages, which are again more frequent in the eastern than western Ashkenazi, may have been assimilated in central Europe. The haplogroup T lineages (5% overall) are more difficult to assign, but at least 60% (in T2a1b, T2b, T2e1 and T2e4) are likely of European and 10% (T1b3 and T2a2) Near Eastern origin30. The haplogroup I lineages have evidently been present in Europe at least since the Neolithic, as indicated by both phylogeographic and ancient DNA analyses31. Haplogroup W3 may have originated in the Near East but spread to Europe as early as the Late Glacial31. The M1a1b lineage is characteristic of the north Mediterranean and was most likely assimilated there32, but the U6a and L2a1l lineages are more difficult to pin down.

    The main lineages with a potentially Near Eastern source include HV1, R0a1a and U7a5 ( 8.3% in all). HV1b2 mitogenomes, in particular, date to 2 ka and nest within a cluster of Near Eastern HV1b lineages dating to 18 ka (Fig. 5 ; Supplementary Table S4). Others such as U1a and U1b have an ultimately Near Eastern origin but, like N1b, have been subsequently distributed around the north Mediterranean. In general, it is more difficult to assign lineages to a Near Eastern source with confidence, as the much larger control-region database indicates that (as with N1b2) many lineages with deep Near Eastern ancestry became widely dispersed along the north Mediterranean during the Holocene, and may alternatively have been assimilated there.

    If we allow for the possibility that K1a9 and N1b2 might have a Near Eastern source, then we can estimate the overall fraction of European maternal ancestry at 65%. Given the strength of the case for even these founders having a European source, however, our best estimate is to assign 81% of Ashkenazi lineages to a European source, 8% to the Near East and 1% further to the east in Asia, with 10% remaining ambiguous (Fig. 10 ; Supplementary Table S9). Thus at least two-thirds and most likely more than four-fifths of Ashkenazi maternal lineages have a European ancestry.

    Figure 10 :

    Discussion

    The extent to which Ashkenazi Jewry trace their ancestry to the Levant or to Europe is a long-standing question5, which remains highly controversial3, 4, 6, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17. Our results, primarily from the detailed analysis of the four major haplogroup K and N1b founders, but corroborated with the remaining Ashkenazi mtDNAs, suggest that most Ashkenazi maternal lineages trace their ancestry to prehistoric Europe.

    Previous researchers proposed a Levantine origin for the three Ashkenazi K founders from several indirect lines of evidence : shared ancestry with non-Ashkenazi Jews, shared recent ancestry with Mediterranean samples, and their absence from amongst non-Jews2, and this suggestion has been widely accepted4. However, our much more detailed analyses show that two of the major Ashkenazi haplogroup K lineages, K1a1b1a and K2a2a1 have a deep European ancestry, tracing back at least as far as the early and mid-Holocene respectively. They both belong to ancient European clades (K1a1b1 and K2) that include primarily European mtDNAs, to the virtual exclusion of any from the Near East. Despite some uncertainty in its ancestral branching relationships, a European ancestry seems likely for the third founder clade, K1a9. The heavy concentration of Near Eastern haplogroup K lineages within particular, distinct subclades of the tree, and indeed the lack of haplogroup K lineages in Samaritans, who might be expected to have shared an ancestral gene pool with ancient Israelites, both strongly imply that we are unlikely to have missed a hitherto undetected Levantine ‘reservoir’ of haplogroup K variation (Supplementary Note 1).

    Furthermore, our results suggest that N1b2, for which a Near Eastern ancestry was proposed (with much greater confidence than for K) by Behar et al.2, is more likely to have been assimilated into the ancestors of the Ashkenazi in the north Mediterranean. Finally, our cross-comparison of control-region and mitogenome databases shows that the great majority of the remaining 60% of Ashkenazi lineages, belonging to haplogroups H, J, T, HV0, U4/U5, I, W and M1 also have a predominantly European ancestry.

    Overall, it seems that at least 80% of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry is due to the assimilation of mtDNAs indigenous to Europe, most likely through conversion. The phylogenetic nesting patterns suggest that the most frequent of the Ashkenazi mtDNA lineages were assimilated in Western Europe, 2 ka or slightly earlier. Some in particular, including N1b2, M1a1b, K1a9 and perhaps even the major K1a1b1, point to a north Mediterranean source. It seems likely that the major founders were the result of the earliest and presumably most profound wave of founder effects, from the Mediterranean northwards into central Europe, and that most of the minor founders were assimilated in west/central Europe within the last 1,500 years. The sharing of rarer lineages with Eastern European populations may indicate further assimilation in some cases, but can often be explained by exchange via intermarriage in the reverse direction.

    The Ashkenazim therefore resemble Jewish communities in Eastern Africa and India, and possibly also others across the Near East, Caucasus and Central Asia, which also carry a substantial fraction of maternal lineages from their ‘host’ communities11, 25. Despite widely differing interpretations of autosomal data, these results in fact fit well with genome-wide studies, which imply a significant European component, with particularly close relationships to Italians3, 4, 6, 7. As might be expected from the autosomal picture, Y-chromosome studies generally show the opposite trend to mtDNA (with a predominantly Near Eastern source) with the exception of the large fraction of European ancestry seen in Ashkenazi Levites22.

    Evidence for haplotype sharing with non-Ashkenazi Jews for each of the three main haplogroup K founders may imply a partial common ancestry in Mediterranean Europe for Ashkenazi and Spanish-exile Sephardic Jews, but may also, at least in part, be due to subsequent gene flow, especially into Bulgaria and Turkey, both of which witnessed substantial immigration from Ashkenazi communities in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Gene flow could have been substantial in some cases—ongoing intermarriage is likely when these communities began living in closer proximity after the Spanish exile6. A partial common ancestry for all European Jews—both Ashkenazi and Sephardic—is again strongly supported by the autosomal results3, 4.

    Jewish communities were already spread across the Graeco-Roman and Persian world >2,000 years ago. It is thought that a substantial Jewish community was present in Rome from at least the mid-second century BCE, maintaining links to Jerusalem and numbering 30,000–50,000 by the first half of the first century CE15. By the end of the first millennium CE, Ashkenazi communities were historically visible along the Rhine valley in Germany33. After the wave of expulsions in Western Europe during the fifteenth century, they began to disperse once more, into Eastern Europe33.

    These analyses suggest that the first major wave of assimilation probably took place in Mediterranean Europe, most likely in the Italian peninsula 2 ka, with substantial further assimilation of minor founders in west/central Europe. There is less evidence for assimilation in Eastern Europe, and almost none for a source in the North Caucasus/Chuvashia, as would be predicted by the Khazar hypothesis8, 9—rather, the results show strong genetic continuities between west and east European Ashkenazi communities10, albeit with gradual clines of frequency of founders between east and west1, 2 (Supplementary Note 2).

    There is surprisingly little evidence for any significant founder event from the Near East. Fewer than 10% of the Ashkenazi mtDNAs can be assigned to a Near Eastern source with any confidence, and these are found at very low frequencies (Fig. 2). The most frequent, belonging to HV1b2, R0a1a and U7, are found at only 3, 2 and 1% respectively. All are widespread across Ashkenazi communities, and might conceivably be relicts of early Levantine founders, but it seems likely that other more minor Near Eastern lineages are the result of more recent gene flow into the Ashkenazim.

    The age estimates for the European founders might suggest (very tentatively, given the imprecision with present data) that these ancestral Jewish populations harboring haplogroup K and especially N1b2 may have had an origin in the first millennium BCE, rather than in the wake of the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple in 70 CE. In fact, some scholars have argued from historical evidence that the large-scale expansion of Judaism throughout the Mediterranean in the Hellenistic period was primarily the result of proselytism and mass-conversion, especially amongst women9. We anticipate that a combination of large-scale mitogenome and whole Y-chromosome analysis, complementing full human genome sequencing, will be able to address this question in much finer detail in the near future.

    Despite the potential of genomic studies, the particular value of full-mitogenome sequencing should be stressed, as some studies dismissed the value of uniparental markers because of the impact of drift in the Ashkenazim6. In fact, the reverse may be the case : autosomal studies may be confounded by drift whereas the fine genealogical resolution of full mitogenomes, given sufficient sampling, can provide a detailed reconstruction of the history of Ashkenazi women. The mtDNA genealogy may even be considered to have particular relevance due to the matrilineal inheritance found in Judaism since at least 200 CE and possibly several centuries earlier, helping to ‘fix’ incoming lineages from converts within the Ashkenazi community after this time. With sufficient resolution, a detailed genealogical history for every maternal lineage in the Ashkenazim is now within reach ; in fact, it should soon be possible to reconstruct the outlines of the entire dispersal history of each community.

    Methods

    Samples and analysis of mtDNA sequence variation

    Although there is a growing database of whole mitogenomes, almost all those from haplogroup U8 are from Europeans or individuals of European (predominantly west European) ancestry. Yet evidence from the Near East is critical in drawing up a meaningful picture of European (and wider west Eurasian) demographic prehistory. We therefore selected 67 predominantly Near Eastern haplogroup K samples (identified by full control-region sequencing of 111 haplogroup K samples) for mitogenome sequencing, plus five samples belonging to non-K U8 and two from Italy potentially belonging to N1b2 (Supplementary Data 1). We collected samples with the appropriate informed consent of the subjects and the work was approved by the University of Leeds, Faculty of Biological Sciences Ethics Committee, the Ethics Committee for Clinical Experimentation at the University of Pavia, and the Western Institution Review Board (WIRB), Olympia, WA, USA. We sequenced them using Sanger sequencing30, 34 and, to maximize the number of samples, we performed a phylogenetic analysis alongside 884 published U8 sequences (a total of 909 belonging to haplogroup K) (Supplementary Data 1) and four haplogroup N outgroup sequences, using Network 4.6 software and the reduced-median algorithm35. We then constructed a putative most-parsimonious tree of the 956 U8 sequences by hand from the network, following PhyloTree36 for known subclades. We used mtDNA-GeneSyn37 to convert files. As there are a number of extremely variable sites in K1 (positions 195 and 16,093 in particular), we confirmed the overall topology by running networks of coding-region data only. We performed similar analyses for haplogroups H, J and T, and for N1b we augmented our previously published tree24.

    Age estimates and phylogeographic distribution

    We estimated coalescence times of clades, using the ρ statistic and ML38, 39, with Bayesian estimations for mitogenomes using BEAST40. For the ρ statistic and ML, we corrected for purifying selection using the calculator we developed previously (Supplementary Data 4)38. We defined some sub-haplogroups to be a priori monophyletic in the analysis (U8, U8a, U8b, K, K1, K1a, K1b, K1c, K2, K2a and K2b) and assumed a generation time of 25 years41. We also obtained Bayesian skyline plots42, 43, 44 to estimate ‘haplogroup-effective’ population sizes associated with U8 over time, and estimated the period of maximum growth39.

    For a broader overview of the diversity and geographic distribution of lineages, we also compiled 1,917 haplogroup K HVS-I (hypervariable sequence I) sequences (in the range 16,051–16,400), 87 from U8a and 52 from U8b1 (from Europe, the Near East and North Africa, from a total database of 33,127 HVS-I sequences) (Supplementary Tables S1 and S2). We displayed frequency and diversity distributions of haplogroups K, U8a1 and U8b1 sequences, identified from their motifs in the HVS-I database, on interpolation maps using Surfer. For the frequency analyses, we analysed the data at the level of published regional populations ; for the diversity analyses we aggregated them into broader areas, as described in Supplementary Table S2. For the analyses of other Ashkenazi lineages we compared 836 published control-region sequences1, 2, 11 with available Ashkenazi whole mitogenomes and the global mitogenome database available on GenBank, in order to assign the Ashkenazi control-region lineages to subclades. For geographic distributions, we supplemented and checked this information against a database of control-region data (38,244 records from west Eurasia, Central Asia and North Africa).

    Additional information

    How to cite this article : Costa, M.D. et al. A substantial prehistoric European ancestry amongst Ashkenazi maternal lineages. Nat. Commun. 4:2543 doi : 10.1038/ncomms3543 (2013).

    Data access : Sequence data have been deposited in GenBank nucleotide core database under accession numbers JX273243 to JX273297, KC878709 to KC878725 and KF297808 to KF297809.

    Accession codes

    Referenced accessions

    GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ

    JX273243
    JX273297
    KC878709
    KC878725
    KF297808
    KF297809

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    16 Elhaik, E. The missing link of Jewish European ancestry : contrasting the Rhineland and the Khazarian hypotheses. Genome Biol. Evol. 5, 61–74 (2012).

    17 Venton, D. Out of Khazaria—evidence for ‘Jewish genome’ lacking. Genome Biol. Evol. 5, 75–76 (2013).

    18 Hammer, M. F. et al. Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 97, 6769–6774 (2000).

    19 Nebel, A. et al. High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews. Hum. Genet. 107, 630–641 (2000).

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    21 Hammer, M. F. et al. Extended Y chromosome haplotypes resolve multiple and unique lineages of the Jewish priesthood. Hum. Genet. 126, 707–717 (2009).

    22 Behar, D. M. et al. Multiple origins of Ashkenazi Levites : Y chromosome evidence for both Near Eastern and European ancestries. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 73, 768–779 (2003).

    23 Richards, M. et al. Tracing European founder lineages in the Near Eastern mtDNA pool. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 67, 1251–1276 (2000).

    24 Fernandes, V. et al. The Arabian cradle : Mitochondrial relicts of the first steps along the southern route out of Africa. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 90, 347–355 (2012).

    25 Behar, D. M. et al. Counting the founders : The matrilineal genetic ancestry of the Jewish Diaspora. PLoS One 3, e2062 (2008).

    26 Pichler, I. et al. Drawing the history of the Hutterite population on a genetic landscape, inference from Y-chromosome and mtDNA genotypes. Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 18, 463–470 (2010).

    27 Campbell, C. L. et al. North African Jewish and non-Jewish populations form distinctive, orthogonal clusters. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 109, 13865–13870 (2012).

    28 Soares, P. et al. The archaeogenetics of Europe. Curr. Biol. 20, R174–R183 (2010).

    29 Brotherton, P. et al. Neolithic mitochondrial haplogroup H genomes and the genetic origins of Europeans. Nat. Commun. 4, 1764 (2013).

    30 Pala, M. et al. Mitochondrial DNA signals of Late Glacial re-colonization of Europe from Near Eastern refugia. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 90, 915–924 (2012).

    31 Olivieri, A. et al. Mitogenomes from two uncommon haplogroups mark Late Glacial/postglacial expansions from the Near East and Neolithic dispersals within Europe. PLoS One 8, e70492 (2013).

    32 Olivieri, A. et al. The mtDNA legacy of the Levantine Early Upper Palaeolithic in Africa. Science 314, 1767–1770 (2006).

    33 Limor, O. inThe Illustrated History of the Jewish People ed De Lange N. Aurum Press (1997).

    34 Torroni, A. et al. Do the four clades of the mtDNA haplogroup L2 evolve at different rates ? Am. J. Hum. Genet. 69, 1348–1356 (2001).

    35 Bandelt, H.-J., Forster, P., Sykes, B. C. & Richards, M. B. Mitochondrial portraits of human populations using median networks. Genetics 141, 743–753 (1995).

    36 van Oven, M. & Kayser, M. Updated comprehensive phylogenetic tree of global human mitochondrial DNA variation. Hum. Mutat. 30, E386–E394 (2009).

    37 Pereira, L. et al. The diversity present in 5,140 human mitochondrial genomes. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 84, 628–640 (2009).

    38 Soares, P. et al. Correcting for purifying selection : an improved human mitochondrial molecular clock. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 84, 740–759 (2009).

    39 Soares, P. et al. The expansion of mtDNA haplogroup L3 within and out of Africa. Mol. Biol. Evol. 29, 915–927 (2012).

    40 Pereira, L. et al. Population expansion in the North African Late Pleistocene signalled by mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6. BMC Evol. Biol. 10, 390 (2010).

    41 Fenner, J. N. Cross-cultural estimation of the human generation interval for use in genetics-based population divergence studies. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 128, 415–423 (2005).

    42 Drummond, A. J., Rambaut, A., Shapiro, B. & Pybus, O. G. Bayesian coalescent inference of past population dynamics from molecular sequences. Mol. Biol. Evol. 22, 1185–1192 (2005).

    43 Atkinson, Q. D., Gray, R. D. & Drummond, A. J. Bayesian coalescent inference of major human mtDNA haplogroup expansions in Africa. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci 276, 367–373 (2009).

    44 Atkinson, Q. D., Gray, R. D. & Drummond, A. J. mtDNA variation predicts population size in humans and Southern Asian chapter in human prehistory. Mol. Biol. Evol. 25, 468–474 (2008).

    Download references :

    http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2013/1…

    http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/ris/ncomm…

    Acknowledgements

    We thank Doron Behar for discussions and suggestions, and Pierre-Marie Danze, Mukaddes Gölge, Anne Cambon-Thomsen, CEPH, Steve Jones, Ariella Oppenheim, Gheorghe Stefanescu, Mark Thomas and the donors themselves for generously providing DNA samples. FCT, the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, supported this work through the research project PTDC/CS–ANT/113832/2009 and the personal grants to M.D.C. (SFRH/BD/48372/2008), J.B.P. (SFRH/BD/45657/2008), V.F. (SFRH/BD/61342/2009) and P.S. (SFRH/BPD/64233/2009). We also received support from the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research : Progetti Futuro in Ricerca 2008 (RBFR08U07M) and 2012 (RBFR126B8I) (to A.O. and A.A.) and Progetti Ricerca Interesse Nazionale 2009 and 2012 (to A.A.), the Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation (to U.A.P. and S.R.W.), the Leverhulme Trust (research project grant 10 105/D) (to MBR) and the DeLaszlo Foundation (to M.B.R./P.S.). IPATIMUP is an Associate Laboratory of the Portuguese Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education and is partially supported by FCT.

    Author information

    These authors contributed equally to this work

    Marta D. Costa &
    Joana B. Pereira

    Affiliations

    Institute of Integrative and Comparative Biology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK

    Marta D. Costa,
    Joana B. Pereira,
    Verónica Fernandes,
    Ken Khong Eng &
    Martin B. Richards

    IPATIMUP (Instituto de Patologia e Imunologia Molecular da Universidade do Porto), Porto 4200-465, Portugal

    Marta D. Costa,
    Joana B. Pereira,
    Verónica Fernandes,
    Pedro Soares &
    Luísa Pereira

    School of Applied Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Queensgate, Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK

    Maria Pala,
    Martin Carr &
    Martin B. Richards

    Dipartimento di Biologia e Biotecnologie, Università di Pavia, Pavia 27100, Italy

    Anna Olivieri &
    Ugo A. Perego

    Dipartimento di Chimica, Biologia e Biotecnologie, Università di Perugia, Perugia 06123, Italy

    Alessandro Achilli

    Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation, Salt Lake City, Utah 84115, USA

    Ugo A. Perego &
    Scott R. Woodward
    Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Moscow 119991, Russia
    Sergei Rychkov &
    Oksana Naumova

    Charles University, Medical Faculty in Pilsen, Institute of Biology, CZ-301 66 Pilsen, Czech Republic

    Jiři Hatina

    Ancestry, Provo, Utah 84604, USA

    Scott R. Woodward

    Centre for Global Archaeological Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM Penang, Malaysia

    Ken Khong Eng

    School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK

    Vincent Macaulay

    Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade do Porto, Porto 4200-319, Portugal

    Luísa Pereira

    Contributions

    M.B.R., L.P. and P.S. devised and supervised the project, M.D.C., J.B.P., M.C. and A.O. carried out the laboratory work, M.D.C., J.B.P., M.P., V.F., P.S., L.P. and M.B.R. carried out the data analyses, M.D.C., J.B.P., P.S., L.P. and M.B.R. wrote the text, M.P., A.O., A.A., U.A.P., S.R., ON., J.H., S.R.W., K.K.E., M.C. and V.M. discussed the results and helped to revise the text.

    Competing financial interests

    The authors declare no competing financial interests.
    Corresponding author

    Correspondence to :

    Martin B. Richards : http://www.nature.com/ncomms/foxtro…

    Supplementary information

    PDF files

    1 Supplementary Tables, Figures, Notes and References (2,098 KB) :

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    Excel files

    1 Supplementary Data 1 (670 KB)

    http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2013/1…

    http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/xls/ncomm…

    Phylogenetic tree of haplogroup U8 mitogenome sequences

    2 Supplementary Data 2 (64 KB)

    http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2013/1…

    http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/xls/ncomm…

    Age estimates using rho (ρ), maximum likelihood and Bayesian estimation for haplogroup U8 and its subclades

    3 Supplementary Data 3 (150 KB)

    http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2013/1…

    http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/xls/ncomm…

    U8 mitogenomes included in the phylogenetic and phylogeographic analysis

    4 Supplementary Data 4 (34 KB)

    http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2013/1…

    http://mai68.org/spip/IMG/xls/ncomm…

    Calculator for converting mtDNA ρ and ML values to age estimates

    This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit

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  • Mythes Sémites pour Gogos Goys 11 janvier 2014 09:37

    Genetic Roots of the Ashkenazi Jews

    http://www.the-scientist.com/?artic…

    Most Ashkenazi Jews, traditionally believed to have descended from the ancient tribes of Israel, may in fact be maternally descended from prehistoric Europeans.

    By Kate Yandell | October 8, 2013

    The majority of Ashkenazi Jews are descended from prehistoric European women, according to study published today (October 8) in Nature Communications. While the Jewish religion began in the Near East, and the Ashkenazi Jews were believed to have origins in the early indigenous tribes of this region, new evidence from mitochondrial DNA, which is passed on exclusively from mother to child, suggests that female ancestors of most modern Ashkenazi Jews converted to Judaism in the north Mediterranean around 2,000 years ago and later in west and central Europe.

    The new findings contradict previous assertions that Ashkenazi mitochondrial lineages originated in the Near East, or from mass conversions to Judaism in the Khazar kingdom, an empire in the north Caucasus region between Europe and Asia lasting from the 7th century to the 11th century whose leaders adopted Judaism. “We found that most of the maternal lineages don’t trace to the north Caucasus, which would be a proxy for the Khazarians, or to the Near East, but most of them emanate from Europe,” said coauthor Martin Richards, an archaeogeneticist at the University of Huddersfield in the U.K.

    Richards and colleagues’ story “seems reasonable,” said Harry Ostrer, a human geneticist at Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University in New York City who was not involved in the study. “It certainly fits with what we understand about Jewish history.”

    The Ashkenazi Jews make up the majority of Jews today and most recently have ancestry in central or Eastern Europe. Previous work has demonstrated that just four mitochondrial types, pass down from four mothers, account for 40 percent of variation in Ashkenazi Jews’ mitochondrial DNA, and some researchers have published evidence of Near Eastern origins for these Ashkenazi mitochondrial types.

    To further investigate the matrilineal lines of the Ashkenazi Jews, Richards and colleagues looked at mitochondrial genome sequences in living Jews and non-Jews from the Near East, Europe, and the Caucasus. Based on the results, the team concluded that, in contrast to the evidence for many Ashkenazi males, whose Y chromosomal DNA suggests a likely origin in the Near East, the female lineage of Ashkenazi Jews have substantial ancestry in Europe. Specifically, the researchers found that the four main Ashkenazi founder mitochondrial types were nested within European mitochondrial lineages, not Near Eastern ones, and an analysis of more minor haplogroups indicated that an additional 40 percent of mitochondrial variation found in Ashkenazi Jews’ mitochondrial DNA was likely of European origin. The remaining variants appeared to be from the Near East or are of uncertain origin, and there was no evidence for Ashkenazi Jewish origins in the Khazar kingdom, according to the authors.

    Historical evidence indicates that Jewish communities began to spread into Europe during classical antiquity and migrated north during the first millennium CE, arriving in the Rhineland by the 12th century. Local European women could have begun to join the Jewish population around 2,000 years ago or earlier, Richards and colleagues suggest, and the Ashkenazis may have continued to recruit additional women as they headed north.

    But some scientists question these conclusions. “While it is clear that Ashkenazi maternal ancestry includes both Levantine [Near Eastern] and European origins—the assignment of several of the major Ashkenazi lineages to pre-historic European origin in the current study is incorrect in our view,” physician-geneticists Doron Behar and Karl Skorecki of the Rambam Healthcare Campus in Israel, whose previous work indicated a Near Eastern origins to many Ashkenazi mitochondrial types, wrote in an e-mail to The Scientist. They argue that the mitochondrial DNA data used in the new study did not represent the full spectrum of mitochondrial diversity.

    Eran Elhaik, a research associate studying genetics at the Johns Hopkins University School of Public Health, is split. He agreed with the study authors that the study rules out a Near Eastern origin for many mitochondrial lineages of the Ashkenazis but disagreed that it rules out a Khazarian contribution. “Jews and non-Jews residing in the regions of Khazaria are underrepresented, which biases the results toward Europe as we have seen in many other studies,” he said in an e-mail to The Scientist. Elhaik recently concluded from autosomal DNA that European Jews did, in fact, have a Khazarian background.

    David Goldstein, a geneticist and director of the Center for Human Genome Variation at the Duke University School of Medicine, said that the questions of whether there was a Khazar contribution to the Ashkenazi Jews’ lineage, or exactly what percentage of mitochondrial variants emanate from Europe, cannot be answered with certainty using present genetic and geographical data. Even if a set of variants are present in a specific region today, that doesn’t mean that the region always had that set of variants. Some variants could have been lost due to drift, or perhaps migration altered the balance of variants present in the population.

    “These analyses really do not have any formal statistical inference about evolutionary history in them,” Goldstein wrote in an e-mail to The Scientist. “They are based on direct interpretations of where one finds different [mitochondrial DNA] types today. And so the analyses are largely impressionistic.”

    Nevertheless, Goldstein noted that the new study “does offer better resolution of the [mitochondrial DNA] than earlier ones, and so the suggested interpretation could well be right.”

    M.D. Costa et al., “A substantial prehistoric European ancestry amongst Ashkenazi maternal lineages,” Nature Communications, doi:10.1038/ncomms3543, 2013.

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  • Mythes Sémites pour Gogos Goys 11 janvier 2014 09:39

    Genes Suggest European Women at Root of Ashkenazi Family TreeBy

    http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/09/s…

    NICHOLAS WADE

    Published : October 8, 2013

    Over the last 15 years geneticists have identified links between the world’s Jewish communities that point to a common ancestry as well as a common religion. Still, the origin of one of the most important Jewish populations, the Ashkenazim of Central and Eastern Europe, has remained a mystery.

    A new genetic analysis has now filled in another piece of the origins puzzle, pointing to European women as the principal female founders, and to the Jewish community of the early Roman empire as the possible source of the Ashkenazi ancestors.

    The finding establishes that the women who founded the Ashkenazi Jewish community of Europe were not from the Near East, as previously supposed, and reinforces the idea that many Jewish communities outside Israel were founded by single men who married and converted local women.

    The study, published Tuesday in the journal Nature Communications, is based on a genetic analysis of maternal lineages. A team led by Martin B. Richards of the University of Huddersfield in England took a fresh look at Ashkenazi lineages by decoding the entire mitochondrial genomes of people from Europe and the Near East.

    Earlier DNA studies showed that Jewish communities around the world had been founded by men whose Y chromosomes bore DNA patterns typically found in the Near East. But there was a surprise when geneticists turned to examine the women founders by analyzing mitochondrial DNA, a genetic element that is separate from the main human genome and inherited just through the female line.

    Unlike the Y chromosomes, the mitochondrial DNA showed no common pattern. In several of the smaller Jewish communities it clearly resembled that of the surrounding population, suggesting a migration pattern in which the men had arrived single, perhaps as traders, and taken local wives who then converted to Judaism.

    But it wasn’t clear whether or not this was true of the Ashkenazim. Mitochondrial DNA tends to change quite rapidly, or to drift, as geneticists say, and the Ashkenazi DNA has drifted so far it was hard to pinpoint its origin.

    This uncertainty seemed to be resolved by a survey published in 2006. Its authors reported that the four most common mitochondrial DNA lineages among Ashkenazis came from the Near East, implying that just four Jewish women were the ancestresses of nearly half of today’s Ashkenazim. Under this scenario, it seemed more likely that the Ashkenazim were the result of a migration of whole communities of men and women together.

    But decoding DNA was still quite expensive at that time and the authors of the 2006 survey analyzed only a short length of the mitochondrial DNA, containing just 1,000 or so of its 16,600 DNA units, in all their subjects.

    The four mitochondrial lineages common among Ashkenazis are now very rare elsewhere in the Near East and Europe, making it hard to identify with certainty the lineages from which they originated.

    With the entire mitochondrial genome in hand, Dr. Richards could draw up family trees with a much finer resolution than before. His trees show that the four major Ashkenazi lineages in fact form clusters within descent lines that were established in Europe some 10,000 to 20,000 years ago. The same is true of most of the minor lineages.

    “Thus the great majority of Ashkenazi maternal lineages were not brought from the Levant, as commonly supposed,” Dr. Richards and colleagues conclude in their paper. Overall, at least 80 percent of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry comes from women indigenous to Europe, and 8 percent from the Near East, with the rest uncertain, the researchers estimate.

    Dr. Richards estimates that the four major lineages became incorporated into the Ashkenazi community at least 2,000 years ago. A large Jewish community flourished in Rome at this time and included many converts. This community could have been the source of both the Ashkenazim of Europe and the Sephardim of Spain and Portugal, given that the two groups have considerable genetic commonality, Dr. Richards said.

    Doron M. Behar, of the Gene by Gene company in Houston and a co-author of the 2006 survey, said he disagreed with Dr. Richards’ conclusions but declined to explain his reasons, saying they had to appear first in a scientific journal.

    David B. Goldstein, a geneticist at Duke University who first detected the similarity between the founding mothers of Jewish communities and their host populations, said the new analysis was well done but that the estimate of 80 percent European origin for the Ashkenazi maternal lineages was not statistically justified, given that mitochondrial DNA lineages rise and fall in a random way.

    A recent analysis based on the whole genomes, not just mitochondrial DNA, of Jewish communities around the world noted that almost all overlap with non-Jewish populations of the Levant, “consistent with an ancestral Levantine contribution to much of contemporary Jewry.” Dr. Richards said that the finding was compatible with his own, given that the Levantine contribution was not that great.

    Another recent study, also based on whole genomes, found that a mixture of European ancestries ranged from 30 percent to 60 percent among Ashkenazi and Sephardi populations, with Northern Italians showing the greatest proximity to Jews of any Europeans.

    The authors of this study in Nature Communications, led by Gil Atzmon of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, noted that there had been mass conversions to Judaism in the early Roman empire, resulting in some 6 million citizens, or 10 percent of the population, practicing Judaism.

    Dr. Richards sees this as a possible time and place at which the four European lineages could have entered the Jewish community, becoming very numerous much later as the Ashkenazi population in northern Europe expanded from around 25,000 in 1300 A.D., to more than 8.5 million at the beginning of the 20th century.

  • Mythes Sémites pour Gogos Goys 11 janvier 2014 12:19, par Chépeurian Levon

    Je vous invite à lire tous les articles sur les nouvelles relations entre ISRAEL et la "république d’AZERBAIDJAN…
    Je vous invite à lire tout les articles sur les relations entre l’AZERBAIDJAN et l’ARMENIE…
    Sous prétexte de se protéger contre l’IRAN ISRAEL fournit des armes tactiques hyper efficaces et hyper meurtrière à l’AZERBAIDJAN…
    A la fin des années 80 les émeutes de BAKOU (violences + expulsions +assassinats anti-arméniens) ont montré que le nationalisme ethnique azéri s’accompagnait d’une haine raciste féroce.
    Une province de l’AZERBAIDJAN, le Haut-Karabakh était peuplé à plus de 80% d’arméniens…Pour protéger cette population contre un nouveau génocide l’ARMENIE s’est emparé du Haut-Karabakh…
    Depuis l’ AUTOCRATE ALIEV et ses successeurs assoient leur pouvoir sur un discours nationaliste belliqueux , ils vont jusqu’à créer ex-nihilo des groupe de rock et de rap chargés de crétiniser la jeunesse azéri en lui faisant croire que l’ARMENIE est responsable de tous les problèmes…
    Suite à l’imbécile guerre civile en SYRIE, les très nombreux arméniens installé dans ce pays ont dû fuir car les intégristes veulent les exterminer et commencent à y parvenir… L’ARMENIE est obligée d’installer une partie de ces réfugiés dans le Haut Karabakh parce que les villes de l’ouest ont été partiellement ou totalement détruites par le tremblement de terre de 1988.
    En vendant des armes tactiques ultra perfectionnées à l’AZERBAIDJAN le gouvernement israélien prend délibérément et consciemment le risque d’aider l’AZERBAIDJAN à commettre un génocide, génocide dont rêvent les Azéri crétinisé par la propagande jamais démentie de leurs abjects dirigeants…

  • Mythes Sémites pour Gogos Goys 20 mai 2014 23:42, par alexandre

    Le problème des Goï ou GoïM c’est qu’ils sont jaloux des Juifs. Vous ne pouvez pas leur foutre la Paix ?

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