Key
Points
Question Are the belief in having had COVID-19
infection and actually having had the infection as verified by SARS-CoV-2
serology testing associated with persistent physical symptoms during the
COVID-19 pandemic?
Findings In this cross-sectional analysis of
26 823 adults from the population-based French CONSTANCES cohort during the
COVID-19 pandemic, self-reported COVID-19 infection was associated with most
persistent physical symptoms, whereas laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 infection
was associated only with anosmia. Those associations were independent from
self-rated health or depressive symptoms.
Meaning Findings suggest that persistent
physical symptoms after COVID-19 infection should not be automatically ascribed
to SARS-CoV-2; a complete medical evaluation may be needed to prevent
erroneously attributing symptoms to the virus.
Importance After an infection by SARS-CoV-2,
many patients present with persistent physical symptoms that may impair their
quality of life. Beliefs regarding the causes of these symptoms may influence
their perception and promote maladaptive health behaviors.
Objective To examine the associations of
self-reported COVID-19 infection and SARS-CoV-2 serology test results with
persistent physical symptoms (eg, fatigue, breathlessness, or impaired
attention) in the general population during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Design, Setting, and Participants Participants
in this cross-sectional analysis were 26 823 individuals from the French
population-based CONSTANCES cohort, included between 2012 and 2019, who took
part in the nested SAPRIS and SAPRIS-SERO surveys. Between May and November
2020, an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to detect anti–SARS-CoV-2
antibodies. Between December 2020 and January 2021, the participants reported
whether they believed they had experienced COVID-19 infection and had physical
symptoms during the previous 4 weeks that had persisted for at least 8 weeks.
Participants who reported having an initial COVID-19 infection only after
completing the serology test were excluded.
Main Outcomes and Measures Logistic regressions
for each persistent symptom as the outcome were computed in models including
both self-reported COVID-19 infection and serology test results and adjusting
for age, sex, income, and educational level.
Results Of 35 852 volunteers invited to
participate in the study, 26 823 (74.8%) with complete data were included in the
present study (mean [SD] age, 49.4 [12.9] years; 13 731 women [51.2%]).
Self-reported infection was positively associated with persistent physical
symptoms, with odds ratios ranging from 1.39 (95% CI, 1.03-1.86) to 16.37 (95%
CI, 10.21-26.24) except for hearing impairment (odds ratio, 1.45; 95% CI,
0.82-2.55) and sleep problems (odds ratio, 1.14; 95% CI, 0.89-1.46). A serology
test result positive for SARS-COV-2 was positively associated only with
persistent anosmia (odds ratio, 2.72; 95% CI, 1.66-4.46), even when restricting
the analyses to participants who attributed their symptoms to COVID-19
infection. Further adjusting for self-rated health or depressive symptoms
yielded similar results. There was no significant interaction between belief and
serology test results.
Conclusions and Relevance The findings of this
cross-sectional analysis of a large, population-based French cohort suggest that
persistent physical symptoms after COVID-19 infection may be associated more
with the belief in having been infected with SARS-CoV-2 than with having
laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 infection. Further research in this area should
consider underlying mechanisms that may not be specific to the SARS-CoV-2 virus.
A medical evaluation of these patients may be needed to prevent symptoms due to
another disease being erroneously attributed to “long COVID.”
After infection by SARS-CoV-2, both hospitalized and
nonhospitalized patients have an increased risk of various persistent physical
symptoms that may impair their quality of life, such as fatigue, breathlessness,
or impaired attention.1-3 Although the term “long COVID”
has been coined to describe these symptoms4 and putative mechanisms have
been proposed,3,5,6 the symptoms may not emanate
from SARS-CoV-2 infection per se but instead may be ascribed to SARS-CoV-2
despite having other causes. In this study, we examined the association of
self-reported COVID-19 infection and of serology test results with persistent
physical symptoms. We hypothesized that the belief in having been infected with
SARS-CoV-2 would be associated with persistent symptoms while controlling for
actual infection.
The French CONSTANCES population-based cohort study7 received ethical approval and
included approximately 200 000 volunteers who were aged 18 to 69 years between
2012 and 2019 and who consented to be followed up through annual questionnaires
and linked administrative databases.8 A total of 35 852 volunteers
responding to annual questionnaires through the internet were invited to take
part in the nested Santé, Pratiques, Relations et Inégalités Sociales en
Population Générale Pendant la Crise COVID-19 (SAPRIS) and SAPRIS-Sérologie
(SERO) surveys.9,10 Ethical approval and written
or electronic informed consent were obtained from each participant before
enrollment in the original cohort. The SAPRIS survey was approved by the French
Institute of Health and Medical Research ethics committee, and the SAPRIS-SERO
study was approved by the Sud-Mediterranée III ethics committee. Electronic
informed consent was obtained from all participants for dried-blood spot
testing. No one received compensation or was offered any incentive for
participating in this study. The present study is a cross-sectional analysis of
data from the SAPRIS and SAPRIS-SERO surveys nested in the French CONSTANCES
cohort.
Between May and November 2020, self-sampling dried-blood spot kits
were mailed to each participant. Each kit included material (a dried-blood spot
card, lancets, and a pad), printed instructions, and an addressed, stamped, and
padded envelope to be returned with the card to a centralized biobank (CEPH
Biobank). Received blood spots were visually assessed, registered, punched, and
stored in tubes (0.5 mL, FluidX 96-Format 2D code; Brooks Life Sciences) at −30
°C. Eluates were processed with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Euroimmun)
to detect anti–SARS-CoV-2 antibodies (IgG) directed against the S1 domain of the
virus spike protein. A test was considered positive for SARS-CoV-2 when the
results indicated an optical density ratio of 1.1 or greater (sensitivity, 87%;
specificity, 97.5%).11 The participants received
their serology test results by mail or email.
Self-reported COVID-19 Infection
Between December 2020 and January 2021, the participants answered
this question from the fourth SAPRIS questionnaire: “Since March, do you think
you have been infected by the coronavirus (whether or not confirmed by a
physician or a test)?” Participants answered “Yes,” “No,” or “I don’t know.” At
the time they answered this question, the participants were aware of their
serology test results (eFigure in Supplement 1). A total of 2788
participants (7.8%) who answered “I don’t know” were excluded.
The participants who answered “Yes” additionally answered this
question: “When did you get the coronavirus? Between March and June; In July or
August; Between September and now.” Participants who indicated having been
initially infected after serologic testing (n = 1312 [3.6%]) were excluded. The
participants who answered “Yes” also answered this question: “Has this been
confirmed? Yes, by virological or PCR test (based on nose swab; results provided
after at least 24 hours); Yes, by antigenic test performed (based on nose swab;
results provided within 1 hour); Yes, by serological test (based on a blood
test; results provided after at least 24 hours); Yes, by rapid diagnostic test
(based on blood test; results provided within 1 hour); Yes, by saliva test; Yes,
by chest CT scan; Yes, by a physician (without testing); No, but I think I had
it; I don’t know.”
Persistent Physical Symptoms
In the same questionnaire, symptoms were measured by the following
question: “Since March 2020, have you had any of the following symptoms that you
did not usually have before?” On the basis of the literature,1-3 the following symptoms were
explored: sleep problems, joint pain, back pain, muscular pain, sore muscles,
fatigue, poor attention or concentration, skin problems, sensory symptoms (pins
and needles, tingling or burning sensation), hearing impairment, constipation,
stomach pain, headache, breathing difficulties, palpitations, dizziness, chest
pain, cough, diarrhea, anosmia, and other symptoms.
Two additional questions were asked for each symptom: “Has this
symptom been present in the past 4 weeks?” Participants answered “Yes, but not
present anymore,” “Yes, and still present,” or “No”; “How much time did this
symptom last? Or how long has it been since you have had this symptom (if it is
still present)?” with possible responses ranging from “Less than a week” to
“More than 8 weeks.” To avoid considering symptoms that were no longer present
or only transient and to limit recall bias, only participants who responded
“Yes” and “More than 8 weeks” to these 2 questions were considered as having
persistent symptoms. Because we aimed to compare participants who self-reported
having had COVID-19 infection with those who did not, we did not distinguish
between persistent symptoms that were similar to those experienced at the time
of the initial episode and potentially new symptoms.
Participants who declared having any of the listed persistent
symptoms also answered the following question: “Do you attribute the current
symptoms to COVID-19?” and participants answered “Yes, all”; “Yes, only a few”;
“No”; or “I don’t know.” Participants who answered “Yes, all” or “Yes, only a
few” were considered to attribute their symptoms to COVID-19 infection.
Age, sex, educational level, income, and self-rated health in 2019
were obtained from the inclusion questionnaire and the 2019 CONSTANCES
questionnaire. Depressive symptoms during the pandemic were measured as part of
the SAPRIS survey by using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression
Scale.12
The crude prevalence of persistent physical symptoms was first
calculated for 4 groups of participants according to both belief (ie,
self-reported COVID-19 infection) and serology test results: belief negative and
serology negative; belief positive and serology negative; belief negative and
serology positive; and belief positive and serology positive. We used
χ2 tests to search for between-group differences. To specifically
test our hypothesis, we used separate logistic regressions for each persistent
symptom as the outcome computed in models including either belief (model 1),
serology test result (model 2), or both (model 3), adjusting for age, sex,
income, and educational level. Additional models searched for belief by serology
test result interactions. In sensitivity analyses, the models were further
adjusted for self-rated health or depressive symptoms. Exploratory analyses were
restricted to participants attributing their persistent symptoms to COVID-19
infection. A 2-sided value of P < .05 was considered statistically
significant. All analyses were conducted using SAS, version 9.4 (SAS Institute
Inc).
Of 35 852 volunteers invited to participate in this
cross-sectional analysis, a cohort of 26 823 (74.8%) with complete data were
included (mean [SD] age, 49.4 [12.9] years; 13 731 women [51.2%]; and 13 092 men
[48.8%]) (Table 1). The crude prevalence rates
of persistent symptoms by belief and by serology test result categories are
given in Table 2. Compared with participants
in the CONSTANCES cohort, the participants in the present study were more likely
to be older, men, more educated, have higher levels of income, and have better
self-reported health (eTable 1 in Supplement 1). The prevalence of
persistent physical symptoms ranged from 0.5% (146 participants with anosmia) to
10.2% (2729 participants with sleep problems). A total of 1091 participants had
a serology test result positive for SARS-CoV-2, including 453 participants
(41.5%) who subsequently reported having had COVID-19 infection before the
serology test. A total of 914 participants reported having had COVID-19
infection before the serology test, including 453 (49.6%) with a serology test
result positive for SARS-CoV-2 (Table 2). Differences in covariates
according to the serology test results, the belief in having had COVID-19
infection, and both are reported in eTables 2, 3, and 4 in Supplement 1. Whether or not the
diagnosis was confirmed by a laboratory test or by a physician among the
participants with a positive belief is reported in eTable 5 in Supplement 1.
Before adjustment, the belief in having had COVID-19 infection was
associated with 15 of 18 categories of persistent symptoms (Table 3, model 1), whereas a
positive serology test result was associated with 10 categories of persistent
symptoms (Table 3, model 2). After mutual
adjustment, positive belief was significantly associated with higher odds of
having all persistent symptoms, with odds ratios (ORs) ranging from 1.39 (95%
CI, 1.03-1.86) to 16.37 (95% CI, 10.21-26.24) except for hearing impairment (OR,
1.45; 95% CI, 0.82-2.55) and sleep problems (OR, 1.14; 95% CI, 0.89-1.46) (Table 3, model 3). By contrast, a
positive serology test result remained positively associated only with anosmia
(OR, 2.72; 95% CI, 1.66-4.46) and was negatively associated with skin problems
(OR, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.29-0.85) (Table 3, model 3). There was no
significant interaction between belief and serology. Adjusting for self-rated
health or depressive symptoms yielded similar results except for joint pain (OR,
1.31; 95% CI, 0.97-1.77) and back pain (OR, 1.29; 95% CI, 0.97-1.72), which were
no longer associated with belief when adjusting for depressive symptoms (eTable
6 in Supplement 1).
Restricting the analyses to participants with a positive belief
and attributing their persistent symptoms to COVID-19 showed a positive serology
test result to be associated only with anosmia (OR, 2.97; 95% CI, 1.58-5.57)
(eTable 7 in Supplement 1). Similarly,
confirmation of the diagnosis by a laboratory test or by a physician (vs the
response, “No, but I think I had it,” and excluding participants who answered “I
don’t know”) was also associated only with anosmia (OR, 4.29; 95% CI, 1.92-9.58)
(eTable 7 in Supplement 1).
This cross-sectional analysis of data from a population-based
cohort found that persistent physical symptoms 10 to 12 months after the
COVID-19 pandemic first wave were associated more with the belief in having
experienced COVID-19 infection than with having laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2
infection.
In previous studies, the association between persistent symptoms
and SARS-CoV-2 serology test results may be explained by the belief in having
experienced COVID-19 infection.13 Furthermore, most previous
studies assessing “long COVID” included only patients who had COVID-19
infection, thus lacking a control group of patients who did not have the
infection.3,14 Indeed, our results showed
that the persistent physical symptoms observed after COVID-19 infection were
quite frequent in the general population. Because our study also included
participants who reported not having had COVID-19 infection with either positive
or negative serology test results, we were able to compare the prevalence of
persistent physical symptoms according to these 2 variables. We were also able
to perform analyses restricted to participants attributing their persistent
symptoms to COVID-19 infection. Although our study did not assess long COVID per
se because we also included participants without COVID-19 infection, these
specific analyses may be more representative of the long COVID clinical issue in
real-life settings15 than the picture provided by
cohorts of patients with a laboratory-confirmed or physician-documented COVID-19
infection.
Although the participants were aware of the serology results when
they reported having had COVID-19 infection or not, less than half of those with
a positive serology test reported having experienced the disease. Conversely,
among those who reported having had the disease, approximately half had a
negative serology test result, consistent with some findings in clinical
settings.15 These results, which allowed
for disentangling the correlates of the serology test results from those of the
belief in having had COVID-19 infection, were not unexpected. First, patients
with a positive serology test result but no or only mild symptoms of COVID-19
infection may not believe that they had the disease. Because persistent symptoms
may be more frequent among patients who experienced a higher number of acute
COVID-19 symptoms,16 the severity of the initial
episode may partially confound the association between the belief in having
experienced COVID-19 infection and persistent symptoms among participants with
positive serology test results. However, this belief was associated with
persistent symptoms to a similar extent among participants with negative
serology test results as shown by the lack of any interaction between belief and
serology. Even if this belief could be explained by the experience of a COVID-19
infection–like episode among some of these participants, these results support
the idea that persistent physical symptoms attributed to COVID-19 infection may
not be specific to SARS-CoV-2. Second, patients who believe that they have had
COVID-19 infection may reject a negative serology test result for several
reasons, including perceptions about the frequency of false-negative tests and
data suggesting that a weak anti–SARS-CoV-2 antibody response could be a risk
factor of long COVID.17 Indeed, since the first
definitions of long COVID, it has been proposed that the associated antibodies
profile is “uncharacterized.”18 Among participants in the
present study who believed that they had experienced COVID-19 infection, anosmia
was the only symptom associated with the confirmation of the diagnosis by a
laboratory test or a physician. In other words, those who responded, “No, but I
think I had it” were 4 times less likely to have anosmia, with no differences
regarding all other symptoms, further suggesting that these other symptoms were
not specific to actual infection by SARS-CoV-2.
Two main mechanisms may account for our findings. First, having
persistent physical symptoms may have led to the belief in having had COVID-19,
especially in the context of a growing concern regarding long COVID. Although
adjusting for self-rated health before the pandemic did not affect our results,
another disease may underlie symptoms attributed to COVID-19 infection. Second,
the belief in having had COVID-19 infection may have increased the likelihood of
symptoms, either directly by affecting perception19,20 or indirectly by prompting
maladaptive health behaviors, such as physical activity reduction or dietary
exclusion. These mechanisms are thought to contribute to the long-described
persistence of physical symptoms after acute infections.21
Strengths and Limitations
In addition to a large, population-based sample, the strengths of
our study included the joint examination of self-reported COVID-19 infection and
serology testing results while controlling for several covariates, including
self-rated health—a robust indicator of physical health—and depressive
symptoms.
This study had limitations. First, selection biases limit the
representativeness of our sample. Second, our study may not have investigated
all of the symptoms that patients with long COVID are reporting. However, the
symptoms we studied were among those that are frequently explored in studies
investigating long COVID3 and reported by patients with
long COVID.22 Third, we analyzed persistent
symptoms separately; different outcomes may be tested by clustering symptoms. In
addition, because our study also included participants who did not report having
had COVID-19 infection, we did not distinguish between symptoms that were
experienced at the time of the initial episode of COVID-19 infection and new
symptoms that occurred afterward. Fourth, we cannot exclude the possibility of
misclassification regarding serology test results. On the basis of the present
results, we estimate the prevalence of previous SARS-CoV-2 infection to be about
4%, and with a sensitivity of 87%, we would expect 139 participants to have
false-negative results, which is less than 1% of those with negative serology
test results. False-negative results were thus unlikely to have much influence
on the associations between persistent symptoms and serology. In addition, the
lack of any interaction between belief and serology test results suggests that
persistent symptoms were associated with belief to a similar extent in
participants with positive and negative serology test results. This finding
makes our results unlikely to be explained solely by false-negative results.
Furthermore, serology test results were associated only with persistent anosmia,
a hallmark of COVID-19 infection, strengthening our confidence in the serology
test results. This result held true even when restricting our analyses to
participants attributing their symptoms to COVID-19 infection. Fifth,
participants were aware of their serology test results when they reported having
had COVID-19 infection or not. This factor may have reduced our ability to
disentangle the associations of the 2 measures with persistent physical
symptoms.
The results of this cross-sectional analysis of a large,
population-based French cohort suggest that physical symptoms persisting 10 to
12 months after the COVID-19 pandemic first wave may be associated more with the
belief in having experienced COVID-19 infection than with actually being
infected with the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Although our study cannot determine the
direction of the association between belief and symptoms, our results suggest
that further research regarding persistent physical symptoms after COVID-19
infection should also consider mechanisms that may not be specific to the
SARS-CoV-2 virus. From a clinical perspective, patients in this situation should
be offered a medical evaluation to prevent their symptoms being erroneously
attributed to COVID-19 infection and to identify cognitive and behavioral
mechanisms that may be targeted to relieve the symptoms.23
Accepted for Publication: September 17, 2021.
Published Online: November 8,
2021. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2021.6454
Corresponding Author: Cédric
Lemogne, MD, PhD, Service de Psychiatrie de l’adulte, Hôpital Hôtel-Dieu, 1
place du Parvis Notre-Dame, 75004 Paris, France (cedric.lemogne@aphp.fr).
Author Contributions: Drs
Matta and Lemogne had full access to all of the data in the study and take
responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data
analysis.
Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: Matta,
Wiernik, Robineau, Carrat, Touvier, de Lamballerie, Blanché, Deleuze, Hoertel,
Ranque, Goldberg, Lemogne.
Drafting of the manuscript: Matta, Lemogne.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual
content: Matta, Wiernik, Robineau, Carrat, Touvier, Severi, de Lamballerie,
Blanché, Deleuze, Gouraud, Hoertel, Ranque, Goldberg, Zins.
Statistical analysis: Matta, Robineau, Hoertel.
Obtained funding: Blanché, Zins.
Administrative, technical, or material support: Blanché,
Deleuze, Gouraud, Goldberg, Zins.
Supervision: Carrat, Touvier, Blanché, Gouraud, Goldberg,
Lemogne.
Conflict of Interest
Disclosures: Dr Robineau reported personal fees and nonfinancial
support from Gilead, ViiV Healthcare, and Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp outside
the submitted work. Dr Carrat reported personal fees from Sanofi outside the
submitted work. Dr de Lamballerie reported grants from the French Ministry of
Research and the French Institute of Health and Medical Research during the
conduct of the study. Dr Hoertel reported personal fees and nonfinancial support
from Lundbeck outside the submitted work. Dr Lemogne reported personal fees from
Boehringer Ingelheim, Janssen-Cilag, Lundbeck, and Otsuka Pharmaceutical outside
the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.
Funding/Support: The CONSTANCES
cohort benefits from grant ANR-11-INBS-0002 from the French National Research
Agency. CONSTANCES is supported by the Caisse Nationale d’Assurance Maladie, the
French Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Research, and the Institut National
de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM). CONSTANCES is also partly
funded by AstraZeneca, Lundbeck, L’Oréal, and Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. The
Santé, Pratiques, Relations et Inégalités Socials en Population Générale Pendant
la Crise COVID-19 (SAPRIS) and SAPRIS-Sérologie (SERO) study was supported by
grants ANR-10-COHO-06 and ANR-20-COVI-000 from the Agence Nationale de la
Recherche; grant 20DMIA014-0 from Santé Publique France; grant 20RR052-00 from
the Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale; and grant C20-26 from INSERM.
Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no
role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis,
and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the
manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
Group Information: A complete list of the members
of the SAPRIS-SERO study group appears in Supplement 2.
Additional Contributions: Céline Ribet, PhD,
Mireille Pellicer, MD, Laura Quintin, MSc, Stephane Le Got, MSc, all from the
CONSTANCES cohort, and Céline Dorival, PhD, and Jerôme Nicol, MSc, from INSERM
Institut Pierre Louis d’Epidémiologie et de Santé Publique, substantially
contributed to data collection for this work.
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